The cybercrime challenge: does the Romanian Legislation answer adequately?

AuthorIoana Vasiu - Lucian Vasiu
PositionFaculty of Law, Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania - Faculty of Law, Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Pages42-51
42 IOANA VASIU, LUCIAN VASIU
THE CYBERCRIME CHALLENGE: DOES THE ROMANIAN
LEGISLATION ANSWER ADEQUATELY?
Ph.D. Ioana Vasiu*
Faculty of Law, Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
PhD MBA Lucian Vasiu**
Faculty of Law, Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Abstract
Several factors combine to create many criminal opportunities in cyberspace, posing a growing
challenge to stakeholders. In the fight against cybercrimes, legal measures play an essential role.
Considering the evolving threats, there is a clear need to constantly update and harmonize the legal
provisions. In this article, we discuss the cybersecurity attributes, the categories of cybercrime,
present an overview of Romanian cybercrime legislation with respect to the most significant or
prevalent offenses and assess its adequacy in the current context. We conclude with
recommendations.
Keywords: cybercrime, threat, security attributes, vulnerability, Romanian criminal law.
1. Introduction
Along with many socio-economic benefits, information and communication
technologies brought about many challenges. In particular, the attacks against
information systems are globally considered very concerning1. Whether
* E-mail: ioanav3@yahoo.com.
** E-mail: lvcianvs@yahoo.com.
1 See Directive 2013/40/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 August 2013 on
attacks against information systems and replacing Council Framework Decision 2005/222/JHA; Oona
A. Hathaway et al., The Law of Cy ber-Attack, CAL. L. REV., 100, 817-885 (2012); Kevin Quigley&Jeffrey
Roy, Cyber-Security and Risk Management in an Interoperable World: An Examination of Governmental
Action in North America, SOCIAL SCIENCE COMPUTER REVIEW, 30(1), 83-94 (2012); Council of Europe,
Cybercrime Strategies (2011); Susan W. Brenner, 'At Light Speed' - Attribution and Response to
Cybercrime/Terrorism/Warfare, J. CRIM. L. & CRIMINOLOGY, 97, 379-475 (2007); Cristopher C.
Joyner&Catherine Lotrionte, Information Warfare as International Coercion: Elements of a Legal Framework,
EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LAW, 825-865 (2001).
Law Review vol. III, issue 2, Jul
y
-December 2013, p. 42-51
The cybercrime challenge: does the Romanian legislation answer adequately? 43
perpetrated from outside2 or inside3, the potential economic, operational or
reputational consequences of successful computer attacks can be very significant,
at individual, organizational and even national or international level4.
Consequently, as the European Commission emphasizes5, the fight against
cybercrimes should be a core element in the overall strategy that aims to protect
the security of information systems.
Cybercrimes now represent an important percentage of all crimes. This
increase in cybercrimes is the result of the unprecedented opportunities that
cyberspace and the global economy present to perpetrators, whether small-scale
criminals or highly organized crime syndicates6. These criminal opportunities arise
foremost from the very large number of software vulnerabilities7 (some allowing
zero-day attacks8) and evolving threats9. Of particular concern are botnets10,
2 There is a very large number of potential attack vectors from the outside. According to Internet
Systems Consortium, in July 2012 there were 908,585,739 hosts on the Internet,
http://ftp.isc.org/www/survey/reports/current/ (last visited Feb. 20, 2013). According to Internet
World Stats, in June 2012 there were over 2.4 billion Internet users, http://www.internetworldstats.
com/ (last visited Feb. 20, 2013). The same number of individuals using the Internet is advanced by
the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development in The Little Data Book on Information and
Communication Technology (2012), http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/publications/material/LDB_ICT
_2012.pdf (last visited Feb. 20, 2013), with the number of fixed broadband subscriptions reaching
about 600 million at the end of 2011.
3 The threat posed by insiders is very real and is discussed in numerous publications. See Adam
Cummings et al., Insider Threat Study: Illicit Cyber Activity Involving Fraud in the U.S. Financial Services
Sector (2012); Verizon, 2012 Data breach investigations report, Study conducted by the Verizon RISK
Team with cooperation from United States Secret Service et al. (2012); Frank L. Greitzer et al.,
Combating the Insider Cyber Threat, IEEE SECURITY & PRIVACY, January/February, 6(1), 61-64 (2008).
4 See Ioana Vasiu & Lucian Vasiu, Criminalitatea în Cyberspaiu (2011); Eurojust News, Cybercrime,
7, 1-4 (2012).
5 Commission of the European Communities, Towards a general policy on the fight against cyber
crime, COM(2007) 267 final (2007).
6 See, e.g., Aditya K. Sood, Rohit Bansal & Richard J. Enbody, Cybercrime: Dissecting the State of
Underground Enterprise, IEEE INTERNET COMPUTING, 17 (1), 60-68 (2013).
7 Vulnerability can be defined as a coding error that allows a perpetrator to execute commands
as a legitimate or authorized user, to access computer data contrary to the access restrictions in place,
or to conduct a denial of service attack.
8 See Derek E. Bambauer, Ghost in the network (2013), available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/
papers.cfm?abstract_id=2232471 (last visited Oct. 10, 2013); L. Bilge & T. Dumitras, Before We Knew It:
An Empirical Study of Zero-Day Attacks in the Real Wo rld, ACM Conference on Computer and
Communications Security (2012).
9 See Seetharam Narasimhan, Hardware Trojan Detection by MultipleParameter Side-Channel
Analysis, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMPUTERS, 62(11), 2183-2195 (2013); Hilarie Orman, Twelve Random
Characters: Passwords in the Era of Massive Parallelism, IEEE INTERNET COMPUTING, 17(5), 91-94 (2013);
OECD, Cybersecurity Policy Making at a Turning Point: Analysing a New Generation of National
Cybersecurity Strategies for the Internet Economy (2012).
10 Botnets are sets of computers controlled remotely by the perpetrator(s) and used in large-scale
attacks against other computer systems. See details in Rafael A. Rodríguez-Gómez, Gabriel
Maciá-Fernández & Pedro García-Teodoro, Survey and taxonomy of botnet research through life-cycle,
ACM COMPUTING SURVEYS, 45(4), 45 (2013).
44 IOANA VASIU, LUCIAN VASIU
phishing techniques11, and computer contaminants, also known as malware12,
particularly considering the availability of advanced tools and services on the black
market as commodities13. Further, considering that cybercrime proceeds make it
more profitable than the combined global trade in marijuana, cocaine and heroin14,
and the constant development of new criminal tools and approaches, which makes
these crimes increasingly sophisticated15, we can only expect a rise in cybercrime
prevalence in the future.
The fight against cybercrimes can only be successful if approached holistically.
According to an ITU publication16, such an approach should be based on five
pillars: Legal Measures, Technical and Procedural Measures, Organizational
Structures, Capacity Building, and International Cooperation. In Romania, as
stated in Government Ordinance No. 1040/2010, the prevention and combating of
cybercrimes is a strategic objective. The importance of fighting cybercriminality is
further emphasized in the Government Decision No. 271/2013 for approving the
Romanian cybersecurity strategy and national action plan on the implementation
of the national cybersecurity system17. Both documents acknowledge the
importance played by the legal measures in the fight against cybecrimes and
underline the need to update, improve and harmonize the legislation.
This article aims to present an overview of the Romanian cybercrime
legislation with respect to the most serious or prevalent offenses and to assess its
readiness or adequacy in the current threats context. The remaining of this article is
structured as follows: Part I explains the security attributes associated with
computer data and systems; Part II looks into categories of cybercrime; Part III
presents Romanian criminal law provisions. Finally, we draw our conclusion.
11 Attacks that aim to acquire passwords or personal information, typically carried out via
e-mails or comments on social networking service that contain malicious links to phony websites or
embedded code in attachments.
12 For an overview and classes of malicious software, see McAfee, Glossary, available at
http://www.mcafee.com/us/small-business-security/glossary.html (last visited Oct. 23, 2013); Cisco,
What Is the Difference: Viruses, Worms, Trojans, and Bots?, available at http://www.cisco.com/web/
about/security/intelligence/virus-worm-diffs.html (last visited Oct. 23, 2013); OECD, Compute r
Viruses and Other Malicious Software: A Threat to the Internet E conomy (2009).
13 See, e.g., Thomas J. Holt, Examining the Forces Shaping Cybercrime Markets Online, SOCIAL SCIENCE
COMPUTER REVIEW, 31 (2), 165-177 (2013).
14 Europol, Cybercrime: A Growing Global Problem (2013), available at https://www.europol.
europa.eu/ec/cybercrime-growing (last visited Oct. 23, 2013).
15 See, e.g., Verizon, 2013 Data Breaches Investigations Report (2013), available at
http://www.verizonenterprise.com/DBIR/2013/ (last visited Oct. 23, 2013); ENISA, Threat Landscape
Mid-year 2013 (2013), available at http://www.enisa.europa.eu/activities/risk-management/evolving-
threat-environment/enisa-threat-landscape-mid-year-2013 (last visited Nov. 3, 2013); Jenny S.
Durkan, Investigating and prosecuting 21st century cyber threats (2013).
16 Marko Gercke, Understanding Cybercrime: A guide for developing countries (2011).
17 Published in Monitorul Oficial, Part I, No. 296, 23.05.2013.
The cybercrime challenge: does the Romanian legislation answer adequately? 45
2. Cybersecurity attributes
To accomplish their goals, criminals breach one or more security attributes
associated with the proper use of computer data and systems. The most widely
discussed security attributes by researchers and commentators are confidentiality,
integrity and availability.
Confidentiality is an attribute that concerns computer data that should not be
obtained or read without right. Confidentiality is very important when disclosures
would significantly harm the victim, for instance the case of trade secrets or
personal information (such as medical records, financial records or attorney-client
communications). Confidentiality can have several levels of restriction, from
restrictions to reading, printing or transmitting data through a computer system, to
restrictions regarding even the existence of certain data.
Integrity refers to maintaining accurate and complete data unaltered in an
improper or subversive manner. Data integrity concerns data stored, processed or
in transit. In the context of databases, data integrity also regards the metadata and
the functions used.
Availability refers to computer data and systems timely and reliably obtainable
or accessible for legitimate users at all times or upon demand, as per their
authorized use. Availability implies preventing all actions that negatively or
improperly affect authorized access to or use of data or systems, including actions
that encrypt, delete, delay or deny access to data or services.
Parker18 proposes three more security attributes: Authenticity (that is, assurance
that a message, transaction or communication is from the source it claims to be
from), Possession or Control (in certain situations, computer data could be possessed
or controlled by unauthorized persons without breaching the confidentiality
attribute) and Utility (which concerns the usefulness of computer data).
An important study discusses these six attributes in paired format:
Confidentiality&Possession, Integrity & Authenticity, and Availability & Utility19.
To these attributes, we would add Legitimate use, which refers to use of computer
data or systems in compliance with all applicable local, state, federal and foreign
laws, as well as system owner's policies.
3. Categories of cybercrime
There is no widely agreed definition of what constitutes cybercrime; moreover,
terms like ‘computer crime’, ‘cybercrime’, ‘e-crime’, ‘network crime’, ‘Internet
crime’, ‘computer-related crime’ or ‘hi(gh)-tech(nology) crime’ are used
interchangeably in various publications. Professor Brenner20 identifies a range of
18 Donn B. Parker, Toward a New Framework for Information Security. In Bosworth & Kabay (Eds.),
The Computer Security Handbook (4th Ed.) (2002).
19 See Verizon, supra note 3 at 5-6.
20 Susan W. Brenner, Cybercrime and the Law: Challenges, Issues, and Outcomes (2012).
46 IOANA VASIU, LUCIAN VASIU
cybercrimes, including crimes that target computers (such as the use of computer
contaminants or distributed denial of service attacks) and crimes in which the
computer is used as a tool (such as cyber extortion or theft). The Convention on
Cybercrime21 proposes four categories of cybercrime: Offenses against the
confidentiality, integrity and availability of computer data and systems (e.g., illegal access
or system interference), Computer-related offenses (e.g., computer-related fraud),
Content-related offenses (e.g., offenses related to child pornography), and Offenses
related to infringements of copyright and related rights. Gercke22 uses the classification
proposed in the Convention on Cybercrime, although he acknowledges overlaps
due to typology not being “wholly consistent, as it is not based on a sole criterion
to differentiate between categories”.
COM(2007) 267 final23 proposes three categories of cybercrimes: traditional
forms of crime (such as fraud), dissemination of illegal content over electronic
media (such as child pornography), and crimes unique to electronic networks
(such as denial of service attacks). The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
(UNODC)24 classification of cybercrimes comprises three broad categories that
include acts widely regarded as cybercrime: Acts against the confidentiality, integrity
and availability of computer data or systems, Computer-related acts for personal or
financial gain or harm, Computer content-related acts, and one category named Other
cybercrime acts, which includes acts that may also be considered cybercrimes.
4. Romanian cybercrime legal provisions
In this Part, we discuss the Romanian legal provisions with respect to main
misconduct against the confidentiality, integrity or availability of computer data or
systems, acts for illegal personal or financial gain, and acts involving illegal
content. The limitations of this article leaves outside discussion other offenses, not
least important, such as intellectual property infringements, hate speech or
grooming.
A. Illegal access, exploitation and interference
Criminal law provisions must protect computer data and systems from
unauthorized exploitation and subversion (such as disrupting, disabling or
maliciously controlling computer systems), which actually translate into protection
against actions that would breach the security attributes discussed above.
Law No. 161/2003 contains, in Chapter II of Title III, provisions regarding the
prevention of cybercrimes, including prevention programs, promotion of policies,
procedures and standards, realization of studies that examine the causes and
21 Council of Europe, Convention on Cybercrime, ETS No. 185 (2001).
22 Gercke, supra note 16 at 29-30.
23 See Commission of the European Communities, Towards a general policy on the fight against cyber
crime, COM(2007) 267 final (2007).
24 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Comprehensive Study on Cybercrime (2013) at 16-21.
The cybercrime challenge: does the Romanian legislation answer adequately? 47
conditions that drive cybercrimes, the maintenance of a database dedicated to
cybercrimes, and the organization of education and training programs. Title III’s
Chapter III of Law No. 161/2003 follows very closely the Convention on
Cybercrime and, in Section 1 (Art. 42-47), incriminates offenses against the
confidentiality and integrity of computer data and systems. While an important
example of legal measures at global level, we would remark that the Convention
needs significant updates, in order to adequately address the important
developments that occurred since its drafting.
Art. 42 of Law No. 161/2003 prohibits the access without right to computer
systems. According to this provision, a person acts ‘without right’ if it is not
authorized by law or by a valid contract, exceeds the limits of authorization or
does not have the permission from the entitled entity (that is, system owner or
administrator) to use the computer system (Art. 35). The Explanatory Report for
the Convention on Cybercrime defines access as comprising “the entering of the
whole or any part of a computer system (hardware, components, stored data of the
system installed, directories, traffic and content-related data)”. We would define
access to a computer system as the ability to successfully read, write or execute computer
files. Points (2) and (3) of Art. 42 stipulate more severe penalties for situations when
access to a computer system without right is made in the attempt to obtain
computer data or by breaching security measures in place. Art. 43 makes it illegal
to intercept, without right, non-public computer data sent to or transmitted from
or within a computer system. This provision aims to protect the right of privacy
and the confidentiality of data sent from or via computer systems.
Criminalization of computer damage or interference can be found in two
separate provisions. Art. 44 makes it illegal to modify, delete or alter computer
data, to restrict access to computer data and to transfer without authorization data
from a computer system or storage device without right. Art. 45 criminalizes the
impairment, without right, of a computer system by the input, transmission,
modification, deletion or altering of computer data or by restricting access to such
data. This provision stipulates that the impairment of the proper functioning of
computer systems must be ‘serious’ to cause criminal sanction, but does not
attempt to define this broad term or concept. Further, there are no provision for the
more serious attacks against systems that are part of critical infrastructure.
Art. 46 concerns access devices and criminalizes the possession, making,
selling, importation, distribution or providing, without right, of devices or
computer programs that would be used to perpetrate the offenses criminalized in
Art. 42-45; it also makes it illegal to possess, make, sell, import, distribute or
provide, without right, passwords, access codes or computer data that would
allow access to a computer system to perpetrate the offenses criminalized in
Art. 42-45. Art. 47 stipulates that the attempts to perpetrate any of the offenses
address in Art. 42-46 shall be punished.
48 IOANA VASIU, LUCIAN VASIU
Section 2 of Law No. 161/2003 comprises computer-related crimes. Art. 48
criminalizes an offense that is the high-tech variant of physical forgery of
documents, to protect the legal interest in the integrity and reliability of computer
data, as this has consequences for legal relations. As the Explanatory Report for the
Convention on Cybercrime emphasizes, “computer-related forgery involves
unauthorized creating or altering stored data so that they acquire a different
evidentiary value in the course of legal transactions, which relies on the
authenticity of information contained in the data, is subject to a deception”. Art. 49
criminalizes computer-related fraud, which is understood to mean the causing of
patrimonial loss by any unauthorized computer data input, altering or deletion,
the restriction of access to computer data or by the impairment of the normal
functioning of a computer system, with the intent to obtain a material benefit for
themselves or others.
The new Romanian Penal Code (Law No. 286/2009) also contains provisions
that regard the security of computer data and systems. Chapter VI of Title VII
(Crimes against public safety) criminalizes, in Art. 360-366, the following offenses:
illegal access to a computer system, illegal interception of a computer data
transmission, altering of computer data, impairment of computer systems,
unauthorized transfer of computer data, and attempts to perpetrate these offenses,
respectively. These articles have very similar provisions to those found in Law
No. 161/2003, the only significant difference being a lower punishment for these
offenses. Art. 325, part of Title VI (Chapter III), criminalizes computer forgery
(identical with Art. 48 of Law No. 161/2003, except for the lower punishment).
Art. 391(3), part of Title IX (Electoral crimes), prohibits the use of computer
programs that would alter the recording or computation or voting results, while
Art. 391(4) prohibits computer data or procedures input that would alter the
election result.
In Chapter IV of Title II (Art. 250-252), the new Romanian Penal Code
criminalizes frauds perpetrated using computer systems or electronic payment
instruments. Art. 249, very similar to Art. 49 of Law No. 161/2003, criminalizes
computer fraud. Art. 250 makes it illegal to use, without authorization, electronic
payment instruments or data that identify such instruments, the unauthorized use
of identification data or the use of false identification data, and the transmission of
identification data to third parties to fraudulently use such data. Art. 251 addresses
the acceptance of fraudulent financial transactions knowing that the electronic
payment instrument is counterfeited or used without the owner’s consent. Art. 252
stipulates that attempts to perpetrate these offenses are punished. Provisions
regarding crimes related to the issuing and use of electronic payment instruments
and the use of identification data can also be found in Law No. 365/2002,
Chapter VIII (Art. 24-28).
The cybercrime challenge: does the Romanian legislation answer adequately? 49
B. Illegal content
The digital environment has enormously increased the possibilities to
perpetrate content-related offenses. Predominant among these offenses is the
creation, access, and distribution of child pornography. In the United States, for
instance, child pornography, as observed in one case, is one of the fastest growing
areas of prosecution by the U.S. Justice Department25. Sexual exploitation of
children is a very serious form of violence against them. Further, as observed in
United States v. C.R.26, “many children who are not physically injured in the
making of child pornography grow up knowing, or learning later, that their abuse
has been frozen in time—sold, circulated, and traded long after physical trauma
ended”. At international level, the main instrument in the protection of children,
including against sexual exploitation, is the United Nations Convention on the
Rights of the Child (UNCRC), adopted in 1989. In 2011, United Nations Resolution
2011/33 further stressed the need to effectively combat the sexual exploitation of
children in the digital age27.
Romanian criminal provision regarding child pornography can be found in
Section III of Law No. 161/2003. Art. 51 prohibits the production for distribution,
offering or providing, disseminating or transmitting, procuring for himself or for
another of such materials through information systems, as well as the possession of
such materials in an information system or data storage system. The new Penal
Code defines ‘child pornography’ as any material depicting a minor engaged in
explicit sexual behaviour or material that, although does not present a person,
simulates, in a credible way, a minor engaged in such behaviour, and criminalizes,
in Art. 374, the production, possession for display or distribution, purchase,
storage, display, promotion, distribution and provision in every way of child
pornography materials. Access to such materials, through information systems or
other electronic communication means, is also criminalized.
Cyberstalking is a special form of stalking that involves the use of information
and communication technologies as the medium and the means of harassment or
intimidation28. Cyberstalking is a violation of fundamental human rights, such as
the right to life, liberty and security, and can amount to serious interference with
the victim's privacy, family or correspondence. Cyberstalking is very prevalent
nowadays and can have dramatic consequences for victims, especially in cases
25 See United States v. Marshall, No. 3:11 CR 557 (N.D. Ohio 2012).
26 United States v. C.R., 792 F.Supp.2d 343 (E.D.N.Y. 2011).
27 See United Nations, Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, Draft resolution I -
Prevention, protection and international cooperation against the use of new information technologies to abuse
and/or exploit children (2011), available at http://www.un.org/en/ecosoc/docs/2011/res%
202011.33.pdf (last visited February 24, 2013).
28 See Ioana Vasiu & Lucian Vasiu, Cyberstalking Nature and Response Recommendations, ACADEMIC
JOURNAL OF INTERDISCIPLINARY STUDIES, 2(9), 229-234 (2013).
50 IOANA VASIU, LUCIAN VASIU
where the perpetrator is obsessed or deranged. The new Penal Code, in Art. 208 (2),
incriminates phone calls or distance communications which, by frequency or
content, causes fear to a person.
5. Conclusion
Cybercrimes encompass a broad range of acts or conducts and can result in
significant adverse effects. Consequently, the prevention and combating of
cybercrimes must be paramount to stakeholders. Adequate legislation is
fundamental in the overall effort to answering the cybercrime challenge.
In this article, we discussed the Romanian criminal law framework with
respect to the most serious or prevalent cybercrimes. The Romanian legal
framework is based on the Convention on Cybercrime, which no longer provides
an appropriate response to current cyberthreats. Further, the Romanian legal
provisions are often vague and dispersed in a confusing way. Consequently, we
believe that the effectiveness of existing legal measures needs to be reconsidered.
There is a need to better describe, in an unambiguous manner, the elements of
the prohibited conduct and take into account the recent years developments in
computer technology and perpetration techniques. We argue that there is a clear
need to update the legal framework according to the new shapes of cybercrime. In
particular, taking into account the very serious threat posed by malicious software,
we consider that the production, possession, use or traffic of such programs must
be penalized as a very serious offense. We also consider that there should be
criminal penalties for carrying out phishing attacks, for false online personation
and for the creation and exploitation of botnets. Further, cybercrimes and
sentencing must be correlated: as an important deterrent, punishment needs to be
more severe, not softened, as the new Penal Code does. Finally, we believe that
laws must better address cybersecurity, investigation and evidence collection
issues, aspects regarding jurisdiction and international cooperation, and the
development of programs regarding awareness raising, education and training of
employees.
References:
1. Seetharam Narasimhan, Hardware Trojan Detection by MultipleParameter Side-Channel
Analysis, Ieee Transactions on computers, 62(11), 2183-2195 (2013).
2. Hilarie Orman, Twelve Random Characters: Passwords in the Era of Massive Parallelism,
Ieee Internet Computing, 17(5), 91-94 (2013).
3. OECD, Cybersecurity Policy Making at a Turning Point: Analysing a New Generation of
National Cybersecurity Strategies for the Internet Economy (2012).
4. Aditya K. Sood, Rohit Bansal & Richard J. Enbody, Cybercrime: Dissecting the State of
Underground Enterprise, Ieee internet computing, 17(1), 60-68 (2013).
The cybercrime challenge: does the Romanian legislation answer adequately? 51
5. Derek E. Bambauer, Ghost in the network (2013).
6. Oona A. Hathaway et al., The Law of Cyber-Attack, CALIFORNIA LAW REVIEW, 100,
817-885 (2012).
7. Kevin Quigley & Jeffrey Roy, Cyber-Security and Risk Management in an Interoperable
World: An Examination of Governmental Action in North America, Social Science Computer
Review, 30(1), 83-94 (2012).
8. Susan W. Brenner, 'At Light Speed' - Attribution and Response to
Cybercrime/Terrorism/Warfare, Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 97, 379-475 (2007).
9. Thomas J. Holt, Examining the Forces Shaping Cybercrime Markets Online, Social
Science Computer Review, 31(2), 165-177 (2013).
10. Ioana Vasiu&Lucian Vasiu, Cyberstalking Nature and Response Recommendations,
Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 2(9), 229-234 (2013).
11. Frank L. Greitzer et al., Combating the Insider Cyber Threat, Ieee Security&Privacy,
January/February, 6(1), 61-64 (2008).
12. Rafael A. Rodríguez-Gómez, Gabriel Maciá-Fernández & Pedro García-Teodoro,
Survey and taxonomy of botnet research through life-cycle, ACM Computing Surveys, 45(4), 45,
(2013).

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